Similar to acetate, propionate has been shown to exert a concentration-dependent effect on the frequency of spontaneous contractions in longitudinal muscle
via enteric nerves in rat distal colon[
44]. In both animal and human studies, it has been shown that propionate reduces food intake and increases satiety
via augmentation of the satiety hormone leptin, and through activation of GPCR43, 41[
48,
49]. Also, propionate may be protective against carcinogenesis because it reduces human colon cancer cell growth and differentiation
via hyperacetylation of histone proteins and stimulation of apoptosis[
50,
51]. In addition, propionate also inhibits the production of proinflammatory cytokines (
e.g., TNF-α, NF-κB) in multiple tissues[
52,
53].